Internet Attribution: Between Privacy and Cruciality - Revision history

AbdelRahman: /* Conclusion */

2011-04-13T06:07:58Z

Conclusion

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	Meanwhile, the Internet is passing through the same phase. People would blindly deny, refuse and object such "wicked" attribution systems, but later on, Internet licensing will be part of everyone's life, just like their driving license. Needless to say, the Internet is becoming more crucial to many applications and in the same time more vulnerable to different types of attacks. Obviously, it is being injected in the "blood" of a vast, yet exponentially growing, number of applications which are time and data sensitive, and which don't leave room for cyber crimes, unauthorized intrusion, traffic tampering, bandwidth hogging, etc. In addition, much of the industry and technology based applications are now build over the Internet as their underlying infrastructure, and cannot tolerate being threatened all the time by a completely anonymous person behind the seen seeking the proper moment to strike. Meanwhile, Internet Attribution is no longer an add-on, but an obligation.		Meanwhile, the Internet is passing through the same phase. People would blindly deny, refuse and object such "wicked" attribution systems, but later on, Internet licensing will be part of everyone's life, just like their driving license. Needless to say, the Internet is becoming more crucial to many applications and in the same time more vulnerable to different types of attacks. Obviously, it is being injected in the "blood" of a vast, yet exponentially growing, number of applications which are time and data sensitive, and which don't leave room for cyber crimes, unauthorized intrusion, traffic tampering, bandwidth hogging, etc. In addition, much of the industry and technology based applications are now build over the Internet as their underlying infrastructure, and cannot tolerate being threatened all the time by a completely anonymous person behind the seen seeking the proper moment to strike. Meanwhile, Internet Attribution is no longer an add-on, but an obligation.

	In this paper, we have presented some formal definitions of attribution, why is it crucial to attribute, level of attribution would be considered acceptable and where the roots of difficulty lies behind achieving such level. Moreover, we have proposed a background about current attribution systems and a brief discussion about the reason of their survival and their point of failure as well. We also populated a list of requirements that must be fulfilled by any system aiming to acquire Internet attribution. Finally, we proposed a potential framework for a system that has that should fulfills the mentioned requirements and that should have the ability to achieve an acceptable level of Internet attribution. Pros, and Vulnerabilities of the proposed framework are also discussed.		In this paper, we have presented some formal definitions of attribution, why it is crucial to attribute, level of attribution would be considered acceptable and where the roots of difficulty lies behind achieving such level. Moreover, we have proposed a background about current attribution systems and a brief discussion about the reason of their survival and their point of failure as well. We also populated a list of requirements that must be fulfilled by any system aiming to acquire Internet attribution. Finally, we proposed a potential framework for a system that has that should fulfills the mentioned requirements and that should have the ability to achieve an acceptable level of Internet attribution. Pros, and Vulnerabilities of the proposed framework are also discussed.

	=References=		=References=
	<references/>		<references/>

Omi: /* Requirements for an Internet Attribution System */

2011-04-12T01:37:25Z

Requirements for an Internet Attribution System

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	=Requirements for an Internet Attribution System=		=Requirements for an Internet Attribution System=

	It is hard to describe some hypothetical attribution system in detail, because there are many issues and complicated dependencies~~, and~~ a lot of questions to answer or at least to try to answer before one can even think of implementing such a system. In this section we ~~are trying to define~~ high-level requirements for a good attribution system~~, while~~ definition of good attribution system is not so clear, we take into account everything we have ~~talked above~~. ~~That is, the~~ following requirements ~~try~~ to define the system in a way that avoids current problems, achieves high degree of attribution and remains realistic.		It is hard to describe some hypothetical attribution system in detail because there are many issues and complicated dependencies. There are a lot of questions to answer, or at least to try to answer before one can even think of implementing such a system. In this section we have defined high-level requirements for a good attribution system. While definition of good attribution system is not so clear, we take into account everything we have discussed in the previous sections. The following requirements attempts to define the system in a way that avoids current problems, achieves high degree of attribution, and remains realistic.

	We have separated those requirements in three sections: general requirements define the idea and overall goal of the system in high level, abstract terms. ~~Deployment~~ requirements set ground rules for deployability that makes sense in such a huge network as internet and human society ~~Practice~~ requirements define the way system works, behaves and interacts with other bodies.		We have separated those requirements into three sections: general requirements, deployment requirements, and practice requirements. The general requirements define the idea and overall goal of the system in high level, abstract terms. The deployment requirements set ground rules for deployability that makes sense in such a huge network as internet and human society. Finally, the practice requirements define the way system works, behaves and interacts with other bodies.

	==General==		==General==

Omi: /* IP Addresses */

2011-04-12T01:23:35Z

IP Addresses

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	===IP Addresses as an Attribution System===		===IP Addresses as an Attribution System===
	~~Although IP addresses can~~ be ~~used~~ to ~~attribute packets~~ to ~~its sender~~, ~~it will fail as~~ an ~~effective~~ attribution ~~system for a few reasons~~, ~~but mainly~~ that ~~attackers~~ can ~~spoof their~~ IP addresses. ~~Spoofing~~ IP ~~addresses will even foil the efforts~~ of ~~IP trace backs~~.		In the ideal world, every action on the internet could be bound to a machine and thus to a person. This is done by examining the source IP printed on each moving packet, locating the geographical location of this IP, consulting the ISP covering the location and identifying the person. If an act requires strict attribution (like checking and sending emails), authentication is used.
			There are many existing methods that attempt to identify the source of an act, like IP traceback. There are problems with trying to identify the source by its IP address. For instance, it can be spoofed, which leads to misleading or inconclusive geographical location. Dynamic IP addresses are not permanently bound to a single account, which makes linking IP to the appropriate person not concrete. IP traceback can be improved but that would require global cooperation of intermediate system, which currently does not exist.

	==Authentication Systems==		==Authentication Systems==

Omi: /* The Attribution Dilemma */

2011-04-12T01:20:48Z

The Attribution Dilemma

Omi: /* Background */

2011-04-12T00:25:35Z

Background

Omi: /* Introduction */

2011-04-11T23:41:49Z

Introduction

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	=Introduction=		=Introduction=
	Currently the Internet infrastructure provides users partial anonymity. Unfortunately, that anonymity weakens the security for its users, because it ~~incites advance~~ users to exploit that feature. The lack of online identification married with bad intentions entices criminals to commit a number of <i>Cyber Crimes</i> without being caught, crimes which include: fraud, theft, forgery, impersonation, the distribution of Malware (and hence, botnets), traffic tampering, DoS, bandwidth hogging, etc. Consequently, internet attribution is a highly sensitive field that constitutes a cornerstone position within internet security. Needless to say, current solutions don't guarantee sufficient attribution nor are considered always applicable in most of the time, hence, current system suffers the lack of a relatively robust attribution mechanism. In the light of this context, we need better methodologies for reaching an acceptable success level for attributing actions ~~to persons~~.		Currently the Internet's infrastructure provides users partial anonymity. Unfortunately, that anonymity weakens the security for its users, because it entices advanced users to exploit that feature. The lack of online identification married with bad intentions entices criminals to commit a number of <i>Cyber Crimes</i> without being caught, crimes which include: fraud, theft, forgery, impersonation, the distribution of Malware (and hence, botnets), traffic tampering, DoS, bandwidth hogging, etc. Consequently, internet attribution is a highly sensitive field that constitutes a cornerstone position within internet security. Needless to say, current solutions don't guarantee sufficient attribution nor are considered always applicable most of the time, hence, current system suffers the lack of a relatively robust attribution mechanism. In the light of this context, we need better methodologies for reaching an acceptable success level for attributing actions over the internet.

	In principle, attribution can be defined as the mechanism of binding a system-defined act to an agent. An agent is typically an entity that has the ability to commit what constitutes an act. Within our focus, an agent could either be a person or a machine. It can also be defined as "determining the identity or location of an attacker or an attacker’s intermediary"<ref> [Institute for Defense Analyses, 2003]</ref>. Problems like IP address spoofing, lack of interoperability in intermediate systems, dynamic nature of IP addresses, unawareness of system users with lots of <i>unknown</i> packets sneaking to their machines and poor efficiency of firewalls and IDSs make this determination operation considerably difficult. In addition, some types of attacks are carried out to conceal the real agent behind an act. For instance, malware distribution (and hence the creation of botnets), and stepping stones aim to inflict vagueness around the correct <i>human</i> source behind the scene.		In principle, attribution can be defined as the mechanism of binding a system-defined act to an agent. An agent is typically an entity that has the ability to commit what constitutes as an act. Within our focus, an agent could either be a person or a machine. It can also be defined as "determining the identity or location of an attacker or an attacker’s intermediary"<ref> [Institute for Defense Analyses, 2003]</ref>. Problems like IP address spoofing, lack of interoperability in intermediate systems, dynamic nature of IP addresses, unawareness of system users with lots of <i>unknown</i> packets sneaking to their machines and poor efficiency of firewalls and IDSs make this determination operation considerably difficult. In addition, some types of attacks are carried out to conceal the real agent behind an act. For instance, malware distribution (and hence the creation of botnets), and stepping stones aim to inflict vagueness around the correct <i>human</i> source behind the scene.

	In this paper, we focus on defining what it takes to achieve an acceptably working attribution mechanism over the internet. To do that, we review past research works in attribution and discuss their common limitations as well as flaws and what can be done in common to enhance such schemes. We also argue that the lack of a globally deployed registration system that registers system users and grants them LICENSED access to the system enfeebles proper attribution and motivates illegitimate intrusions and irregular behavior. We show that employing the mentioned system would reduce the incentive of irregular behavior as well as remove the blaze of tempting anonymity, putting attackers under the risk of being easily caught. We also discuss how privacy, as a counter force to attribution, plays a big role in the internet and within its users and propose a framework that achieves relatively robust attribution mechanism and retains the privacy of users.		In this paper, we focus on defining what it takes to achieve an acceptably working attribution mechanism over the internet. To do that, we review past research works in attribution and discuss their common limitations as well as flaws and what can be done in common to enhance such schemes. We also argue that the lack of a globally deployed registration system that registers system users and grants them LICENSED access to the system enfeebles proper attribution and motivates illegitimate intrusions and irregular behavior. We show that employing the mentioned system would reduce the incentive of irregular behavior as well as remove the blaze of tempting anonymity, putting attackers under the risk of being easily caught. We also discuss how privacy, as a counter force to attribution, plays a big role in the internet and within its users and propose a framework that achieves relatively robust attribution mechanism and retains the privacy of users.
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	Much of the research done in literature focuses on attribution that is done for keeping track of authorship, i.e., attributing text to authors. In this paper, we don't question the cruciality of attribution in this field, but rather we address a higher level of attribution of all possible actions to agents, which is sadly deemed slightly obsolete from the current research perspective.		Much of the research done in literature focuses on attribution that is done for keeping track of authorship, i.e., attributing text to authors. In this paper, we don't question the cruciality of attribution in this field, but rather we address a higher level of attribution of all possible actions to agents, which is sadly deemed slightly obsolete from the current research perspective.

	This paper starts by a quick background discussion on the current forms of attribution. Consequently, section 3 presents the dilemma of attribution, resolving the tension between attribution and privacy. Section 4 presents a fundamental set of requirements for achieving an acceptable level of attribution over the internet. In section 5, we propose an abstract framework for achieving attribution that mimics attribution in the real world. And finally, a conclusion is presented in section 6.		This paper starts with a quick background discussion on the current forms of attribution. Consequently, section 3 presents the dilemma of attribution, resolving the tension between attribution and privacy. Section 4 presents a fundamental set of requirements for achieving an acceptable level of attribution over the internet. In section 5, we propose an abstract framework for achieving attribution that mimics attribution in the real world. And finally, a conclusion is presented in section 6.

	==What is Attribution==		==What is Attribution==
	''The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art.''<ref> The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.</ref>		''The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art.''<ref> The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.</ref>

	We are concerned with one particular type of attribution - binding an act to a person. This may include intermediate attributions, for example~~, an act to an agent~~ (software, device, etc.) and then attribution ~~of an~~ agent to person. Narrowing the problem further, we're only concerned about attribution in large, dynamic networks, ~~like~~ internet. For sake of simplicity, in this paper we~~'re going to~~ reference to "binding an act to a person on the internet" ~~as "attribution", while other types of attributing will be defined separately~~.		We are concerned with one particular type of attribution; binding an act to a person. This may include intermediate attributions to other agents, for example (software, device, etc.) and then attribution from that agent to a person. Narrowing the problem further, we're only concerned about attribution in large, dynamic networks, and as such focusing on the internet. For sake of simplicity, in this paper, whenever we make mention of "attribution," we will do so with reference to "binding an act to a person on the internet".

	==Problem Statement==		==Problem Statement==
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	==Problem Motivation==		==Problem Motivation==
	In today's world there is a growing need for strong attribution over the Internet mainly due to increased numbers of cyber attacks since its introduction in the 90’s. Many attackers have succeeded in causing both physical and financial damage to many companies over the Internet and going Scott free; due to the anonymity of the Internet, the attackers cannot be identified.		In today's world there is a growing need for strong attribution over the Internet mainly due to increased numbers of cyber attacks since its introduction in the 90’s. Many attackers have succeeded in causing both physical and financial damage to many companies over the Internet and going "Scott free"; due to the anonymity of the Internet, the attackers cannot be identified.

	==Scope==		==Scope==
	In this paper we are addressing the issue of attribution by providing a list of requirements that need to be met in order to have a fully stable and efficient attribution system over the Internet.		In this paper we are addressing the issue of attribution by providing a list of requirements that need to be met in order to have a fully stable and efficient attribution system over the Internet.

	Although this is not a technical paper, a basic knowledge of computer science or computer systems will be required, to fully understand some of the concepts and terminology discussed within this paper,		Although this is not a technical paper, a basic knowledge of computer science or computer systems will be required to fully understand some of the concepts and terminology discussed within this paper.

	=Background=		=Background=

Omi at 23:10, 11 April 2011

2011-04-11T23:10:46Z

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	<b>Abstract</b><br/>		<b>Abstract</b><br/>
	Present and past situations show a need for improved attribution systems, and arguably, scientific basis for properly functioning attribution systems are not yet defined. Lots of research have been focusing on attributing documents to authors for the sake of securing authorship rights and rapid identification of plagiarism. Many of those were revolving around the notion of using machine learning for linking articles to humans. Others proposed text classification and feature selection as a ~~mean~~ of detecting the author of a document. Unfortunately, not that much research is addressing the problem of lack of robust attribution system over the internet. Authentication, as a ~~mean~~ of attribution, has proved its efficiency but, needless to say, it is not applicable to authenticate every single packet hopping over the intermediate systems. This paper presents limits and advances in the attribution of actions to agents over the internet. It reviews current attribution technologies as well as the limits of those technologies. It also identifies the requirements of a proper attribution system and proposes a distributed (yet cooperative) approach for performing attribution over the internet.		Present and past situations show a need for improved attribution systems, and arguably, scientific basis for properly functioning attribution systems are not yet defined. Lots of research have been focusing on attributing documents to authors for the sake of securing authorship rights and rapid identification of plagiarism. Many of those were revolving around the notion of using machine learning for linking articles to humans. Others proposed text classification and feature selection as a means of detecting the author of a document. Unfortunately, not that much research is addressing the problem of lack of robust attribution system over the internet. Authentication, as a means of attribution, has proved its efficiency but, needless to say, it is not applicable to authenticate every single packet hopping over the intermediate systems. This paper presents limits and advances in the attribution of actions to agents over the internet. It reviews current attribution technologies as well as the limits of those technologies. It also identifies the requirements of a proper attribution system and proposes a distributed (yet cooperative) approach for performing attribution over the internet.

	=Introduction=		=Introduction=

Omi: /* Pros, Cons and Vulnerabilities */

2011-04-11T22:56:31Z

Pros, Cons and Vulnerabilities

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	From the intermediate system's perspective, when a router receives a packet, it verifies its <i>IS</i>. This is done by consulting the <i>GDDB</i> which is in turn done by sending a copy of the <i>IS</i> printed on the packet to the <i>GDDB</i>. If a packet is found to be not having an <i>IS</i>, the packet is prevented from benefiting from <i>ISS</i> and is simply dropped. If the <i>GDDB</i> replies with an invalid <i>IS</i>, again, the packet is dropped. If the <i>GDDB</i> replies with a success, this will mean that the packet's printed <i>IS</i> is verified. Thus, the packet benefits from the <i>ISS</i> and gets routed throughout the way.		From the intermediate system's perspective, when a router receives a packet, it verifies its <i>IS</i>. This is done by consulting the <i>GDDB</i> which is in turn done by sending a copy of the <i>IS</i> printed on the packet to the <i>GDDB</i>. If a packet is found to be not having an <i>IS</i>, the packet is prevented from benefiting from <i>ISS</i> and is simply dropped. If the <i>GDDB</i> replies with an invalid <i>IS</i>, again, the packet is dropped. If the <i>GDDB</i> replies with a success, this will mean that the packet's printed <i>IS</i> is verified. Thus, the packet benefits from the <i>ISS</i> and gets routed throughout the way.

	==Pros~~, Cons and Vulnerabilities~~==		==Pros==

	~~The proposed framework enjoys the following advantages:~~
	* It succeeds to perform an acceptable level of attribution relative to the one achieved in the real world.		* It succeeds to perform an acceptable level of attribution relative to the one achieved in the real world.
	* It avoids anonymous attacks since a non-attributed packet will fail to reach its destination.		* It avoids anonymous attacks since a non-attributed packet will fail to reach its destination.
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	* The system avoids all forms of cyber crimes that are executed by unknown <i>Ag</i>s.		* The system avoids all forms of cyber crimes that are executed by unknown <i>Ag</i>s.

	~~The proposed framework suffers from the following disadvantages:~~		==Cons==

	* The verification process of the <i>IS</i> on each packet creates undesirable delays potential bottlenecks at the routers.		* The verification process of the <i>IS</i> on each packet creates undesirable delays potential bottlenecks at the routers.
	* The framework is not considered easy to deploy since the assumptions are deemed relatively complex.		* The framework is not considered easy to deploy since the assumptions are deemed relatively complex.
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	* For security purposes, licenses should be periodically renewable, however, this is not considered an easy topic.		* For security purposes, licenses should be periodically renewable, however, this is not considered an easy topic.

	~~The proposed framework is vulnerable to:~~		==Vulnerabilities==

	* Botnets		* Botnets
	** The system requires full user awareness with what lies under the hood. Since they are the sole responsible persons for their <i>Md</i>s, they should be aware with all packets sneaking into their machines for avoiding the distribution of malware, and the later formation of botnets.		** The system requires full user awareness with what lies under the hood. Since they are the sole responsible persons for their <i>Md</i>s, they should be aware with all packets sneaking into their machines for avoiding the distribution of malware, and the later formation of botnets.

Omi: /* Requirements for internet attribution system */

2011-04-11T22:53:19Z

Requirements for internet attribution system

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	There are attacks that designed specifically to prevent correct attribution. It is used for identity theft and distribution of malware. Stepping stone attack is a common way of attributing attacks to anonymity by using multiple public random agents(as stepping stones) to reach the victim in order to conceal the attacking source. <ref name="ref1">S. Staniford-Chen and L. T. Heberlein. Holding intruders accountable on the internet. In SP ’95: Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, page 39, Washington, DC, USA, 1995. IEEE Computer Society.</ref>		There are attacks that designed specifically to prevent correct attribution. It is used for identity theft and distribution of malware. Stepping stone attack is a common way of attributing attacks to anonymity by using multiple public random agents(as stepping stones) to reach the victim in order to conceal the attacking source. <ref name="ref1">S. Staniford-Chen and L. T. Heberlein. Holding intruders accountable on the internet. In SP ’95: Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, page 39, Washington, DC, USA, 1995. IEEE Computer Society.</ref>

	=Requirements for ~~internet attribution system~~=		=Requirements for an Internet Attribution System=

	It is hard to describe some hypothetical attribution system in detail, because there are many issues and complicated dependencies, and a lot of questions to answer or at least to try to answer before one can even think of implementing such a system. In this section we are trying to define high-level requirements for a good attribution system, while definition of good attribution system is not so clear, we take into account everything we have talked above. That is, the following requirements try to define the system in a way that avoids current problems, achieves high degree of attribution and remains realistic.		It is hard to describe some hypothetical attribution system in detail, because there are many issues and complicated dependencies, and a lot of questions to answer or at least to try to answer before one can even think of implementing such a system. In this section we are trying to define high-level requirements for a good attribution system, while definition of good attribution system is not so clear, we take into account everything we have talked above. That is, the following requirements try to define the system in a way that avoids current problems, achieves high degree of attribution and remains realistic.

Omi: /* Why is it difficult to achieve attribution? */

2011-04-11T22:52:11Z

Why is it difficult to achieve attribution?

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	Financial matters are not the only incentive for a strong attribution system. Establishing strong identification mechanism can provide better protection against cyber attacks. When the source of an attack can be recognize, then the proper authorities can prosecute the perpetrators of such crimes as: DoS, DDos, computer fraud, forgery and identity theft, sniffing private traffic, distributing illegal traffic and malware, spam, illegal and undesirable intrusions.		Financial matters are not the only incentive for a strong attribution system. Establishing strong identification mechanism can provide better protection against cyber attacks. When the source of an attack can be recognize, then the proper authorities can prosecute the perpetrators of such crimes as: DoS, DDos, computer fraud, forgery and identity theft, sniffing private traffic, distributing illegal traffic and malware, spam, illegal and undesirable intrusions.

	==Why is it difficult to achieve ~~attribution~~?==		==Why is it difficult to achieve Attribution?==

	The problem rise largely due to how the Internet is designed. It does not have strong identification mechanisms, which makes it relatively anonymous for users. Moreover, most current solutions are based on the same structure and work within the same scope, thus, can only reduce the number of potentially destructive acts or just deal with the consequences. Of course, no system can completely prevent against destructive attempts, but some potentially good attribution system should make such attempts highly undesirable and "costly" for an attacker.		The problem rise largely due to how the Internet is designed. It does not have strong identification mechanisms, which makes it relatively anonymous for users. Moreover, most current solutions are based on the same structure and work within the same scope, thus, can only reduce the number of potentially destructive acts or just deal with the consequences. Of course, no system can completely prevent against destructive attempts, but some potentially good attribution system should make such attempts highly undesirable and "costly" for an attacker.

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	=The Attribution Dilemma=		=The Attribution Dilemma=

	There are many facets to designing an attribution system, besides the technological aspects. In addition to the technologies and/or infrastructure available, one must also consider the issue of privacy, because when trying to achieve strong attribution personal privacy is compromised. Any system must try to find a balance between strong attribution and privacy. The balance is influenced by the application of the system. For instance, in the case of financial institutions, the clients as well as the institute will place more emphasis on attribution. Such institutes would like to establish unassailable authorization and authentication systems, so as to guarantee (to some degree) that agents involved in the transactions are who they claim they are. On the opposite side of the spectrum, are situations where privacy takes precedence. Political dissidents and whistle-blowers are relatively protected because there is no strong attribution system in place, which allows them to distribute information (regardless of actual usefulness or goodness of it) and keep their identity secret. It is clear that single universal set of rules cannot satisfy these two cases. It is also clear that, in pretty abstract fashion, privacy is inversely proportional to attribution. While designing an attribution system one needs not only to decide on this ration for some particular case, but rather make this ratio dynamically changed depending on the case.		There are many facets to designing an attribution system, besides the technological aspects. In addition to the technologies and/or infrastructure available, one must also consider the issue of privacy, because when trying to achieve strong attribution, personal privacy is compromised. Any system must try to find a balance between strong attribution and privacy. The balance is influenced by the application of the system. For instance, in the case of financial institutions, the clients, as well as the institute will place more emphasis on attribution. Such institutes would like to establish unassailable authorization and authentication systems, so as to guarantee (to some degree) that agents involved in the transactions are who they claim they are. On the opposite side of the spectrum, are situations where privacy takes precedence. Political dissidents and whistle-blowers are relatively protected because there is no strong attribution system in place, which allows them to distribute information (regardless of actual usefulness or goodness of it) and keep their identity secret. It is clear that single universal set of rules cannot satisfy these two cases. It is also clear that, in a pretty abstract fashion, privacy is inversely proportional to attribution. While designing an attribution system one needs not only to decide on this ration for some particular case, but rather make this ratio dynamically changed depending on the case.

	Assuming such a ratio is found, another issue arises. Can the use of private information to track or punish a person be completely justified? Especially if it oversteps their privacy. One might think that this question is a little bit out of the scope of ~~our~~ paper. However, such ethical arguments must be addressed prior to ~~designing~~, because a system that compromises individual privacy and protection ~~can~~ not be utilized.		Assuming such a ratio is found, another issue arises. Can the use of private information to track or punish a person be completely justified? Especially if it oversteps their privacy. One might think that this question is a little bit out of the scope of this paper. However, such ethical arguments must be addressed prior to the design of an attribution system, because a system that compromises individual privacy and protection, should not be utilized.

	~~There are other topics that~~ attribution system ~~must answer.~~ Who should have the authority to attribute? What information can they attributed~~? And~~ why do they need it? How is attribution achieved or measured~~? How accurate are IP-traceback, stepping stone authentications, link identifications and packet filtering in wedging packets to agents~~? How much can intermediate systems' cooperation contribute to achieving attribution? How to deal with misleading data sources hiding behind botnets and concealing identities via stepping stones?		Before designing an attribution system for the Internet, many questions need to be answered, some of which are: Who should have the authority to attribute? What information can they attributed and why do they need it? How is attribution achieved or measured? How much can intermediate systems' cooperation contribute to achieving attribution? How do you deal with misleading data sources hiding behind botnets and concealing identities via stepping stones?

	==Why do we need Attribution==		==Why do we need Attribution==

	~~Attribution~~ system ~~has~~ many useful applications. The identification property can useful at establishing the client’s identity for Online Banking, identifying the involving party in eCommerce transaction, and can be taken advantage by marketers for more targeting Web advertisements.		An attribution system will have many useful applications. The identification property can be useful at establishing the client’s identity for Online Banking, identifying the involving party in eCommerce transaction, and can be taken advantage by marketers for more targeting Web advertisements.

	Financial matters are not the only incentive for a strong attribution system. Establishing strong identification mechanism can provide better protection against cyber attacks. When the source of an attack can be ~~recognize~~, then the proper authorities can prosecute the perpetrators of such crimes as: DoS, DDos, computer fraud, forgery and identity theft, sniffing private traffic, distributing illegal traffic and malware, spam, illegal and undesirable intrusions.		Financial matters are not the only incentive for a strong attribution system. Establishing strong identification mechanism can provide better protection against cyber attacks. When the source of an attack can be recognized, then the proper authorities can prosecute the perpetrators of such crimes as: DoS, DDos, computer fraud, forgery and identity theft, sniffing private traffic, distributing illegal traffic and malware, spam, illegal and undesirable intrusions.

	==Why is it difficult to achieve Attribution?==		==Why is it difficult to achieve Attribution?==

	~~The~~ problem ~~rise~~ largely due to how the Internet is designed. It does not have strong identification mechanisms, which ~~makes it relatively anonymous for~~ users. Moreover, most current solutions are based on the same structure and work within the same scope, thus, can only reduce the number of potentially destructive acts or just deal with the consequences. Of course, no system can completely prevent against destructive attempts, but ~~some potentially~~ good attribution system should make such attempts highly undesirable and "costly" for an attacker.		This problem arises largely due to how the Internet is designed. It does not have strong identification mechanisms, which in turn provides users with a certain level of anonymity. Moreover, most current solutions are based on the same structure and work within the same scope, thus, can only reduce the number of potentially destructive acts or just deal with the consequences. Of course, no system can completely prevent against destructive attempts, but a good attribution system should make such attempts highly undesirable and "costly" for an attacker.

	The issue of lack of attribution on the web mostly arises whenever security is compromised. When you're bombarded with spam, or when a system is under a DoS attack attribution becomes a more appealing notion. Getting a balance between security and privacy is tricky, because once attacks are tracked so will all other traffic. Also, depending on the type of the ~~senders~~ and ~~receivers~~, different attribution policy will be required.		The issue of lack of attribution on the web mostly arises whenever security is compromised. When you're bombarded with spam, or when a system is under a DoS attack, attribution becomes a more appealing notion. Getting a balance between security and privacy is tricky, because once attacks are tracked so will all other traffic. Also, depending on the type of the sender and receiver, different attribution policy will be required.

	In the ideal world, every action on the internet could be bound to a machine and thus to a person. This is done by examining the source IP printed on each moving packet, locating the geographical location of this IP, consulting the ISP covering the location and identifying the person. If an act requires strict attribution (like checking and sending emails), authentication is used.		In networks, users are not aware of all packets that are received by their machines, which mean users would not be aware of malware distribution, the creation of botnets and other actions taken by their machine without their approval and triggered by other network users. Firewalls and packet filters can be used to address such problems, but they are not very efficient. Also, it is not practical to authenticate every single action on the internet.
	There are many existing methods that attempt to identify the source of an act, like IP traceback. There are problems with trying to identify the source by its IP address. For instance, it can be spoofed, which leads to misleads or inconclusive geographical location. IP addresses are not permanently bound to a single account, which makes linking IP to the appropriate person not concrete. IP traceback can be improved but that would require global cooperation of intermediate system, which currently does not exist.

	In networks, users are not aware of all packets that are received by their machines, which mean users would not be aware of malware distribution, the creation of botnets and other actions taken by their machine without their approval and triggered by other a network ~~user~~. Firewalls and packet filters can be used to address such problems, but they are not very efficient. Also, it is not practical to authenticate every single action on the internet.

	There are attacks that designed specifically to prevent correct attribution. It is used for identity theft and distribution of malware. Stepping stone attack is a common way of attributing attacks to anonymity by using multiple public random agents(as stepping stones) to reach the victim in order to conceal the attacking source. <ref name="ref1">S. Staniford-Chen and L. T. Heberlein. Holding intruders accountable on the internet. In SP ’95: Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, page 39, Washington, DC, USA, 1995. IEEE Computer Society.</ref>		There are attacks that designed specifically to prevent correct attribution. It is used for identity theft and distribution of malware. Stepping stone attack is a common way of attributing attacks to anonymity by using multiple public random agents(as stepping stones) to reach the victim in order to conceal the attacking source. <ref name="ref1">S. Staniford-Chen and L. T. Heberlein. Holding intruders accountable on the internet. In SP ’95: Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, page 39, Washington, DC, USA, 1995. IEEE Computer Society.</ref>

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	=Background=		=Background=

	The problem of attribution is not one that just came up; it has been around for decades but mostly to address identification issues as it pertained to websites or Internet ~~service providers~~. A lot of different approaches towards attribution have been taken but mainly just to the extent of what that particular system stems to achieve.		The problem of attribution is not one that just came up; it has been around for decades, but mostly to address identification issues as it pertained to websites or Internet Service Providers. A lot of different approaches towards attribution have been taken, but mainly just to the extent of what that particular system stems to achieve.
	This section gives an introduction to three of todays current attribution systems and discusses their pros and cons as they pertain to the type of global attribution we discuss in this paper.		This section gives an introduction to three of todays current attribution systems and discusses their pros and cons as they pertain to the type of global attribution we discuss in this paper.

	==Cookies==		==Cookies==
	Websites will sometimes need to remember information about a visit or a visitor in order to improve viewer experience. Cookies are text files that are created by a web server, and stored by a web browser on the user's computer. Cookies are used for many reasons; mainly authentication, remembering shopping cart information, and storing site preference. In actuality, they can be used to store any type of information that can be stored in a text file. When a page is requested the users web browser sends the request with the webserver’s cookie in the header part of the packet. All this is an automated process between the web browser and web server.		Websites will sometimes need to remember information about a visit or a visitor in order to improve viewer experience. Cookies are text files that are created by a web server, and stored by a web browser on the user's computer. Cookies are used for many reasons; mainly authentication, remembering shopping cart information, and storing site preference. In actuality, they can be used to store any type of information that can be stored in a text file. When a page is requested the users web browser sends the request with the webserver’s cookie in the header part of the request packet. All this is an automated process between the web browser and web server.

	If at all the webserver receives a request without a cookie attached to it, it takes it as the first access that ~~the~~ browser is making to the server and sends one as part of the response which will be saved by the browser and resent on the next request. Cookies are usually encrypted in order for data security and information privacy, however they are still subject to the users control as they can be decrypted, modified and even deleted completely. It is also possible for a user to change their browser setting to not accept cookies at all.		If at all the webserver receives a request without a cookie attached to it, it takes it as the first access that that browser is making to the server and sends one as part of the response, which will be saved by the browser and resent on the next request. Cookies are usually encrypted in order for data security and information privacy, however they are still subject to the users control as they can be decrypted, modified, and even deleted completely. It is also possible for a user to change their browser setting to not accept cookies at all.

	Cookies can either have an expiration date or not; this is the date that the browser deletes the cookie. Cookies without an expiration date are deleted when the browser is closed. Some browsers allow you to automatically set how long you want cookies to be stored.		Cookies can either have an expiration date or not; this is the date that the browser deletes the cookie. Cookies without an expiration date are deleted when the browser is closed. Some browsers allow you to automatically set how long you want cookies to be stored.

	===Cookies as an Attribution System===		===Cookies as an Attribution System===
	Looking at cookies as the type of attribution system we are looking for over the Internet, we will be able to achieve high precision on identifying computers that access a web server. However, The biggest draw back cookies have is that they can be deleted and manipulated. As such ~~the use of~~ cookies is not an effective attribution system.		Looking at cookies as the type of attribution system we are looking for over the Internet, we will be able to achieve high precision on identifying computers that access a web server. However, The biggest draw back cookies have is that they can be deleted and manipulated. As such, cookies are not an effective attribution system.

	==IP Addresses==		==IP Addresses==
	IP or Internet Protocol Addresses are 32 bit numerical identifiers for devices (ie computer, printer, scanner etc..) on a network. The users Internet Service Provider (ISP) provide this number. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for managing IP Address space allocation globally. It does this with the help of five Regional Internet ~~registries~~ (RIRs), responsible for allocating IP address blocks to their assigned regions ISPs, who in turn allocates them to their users.		IP or Internet Protocol Addresses are 32 bit numerical identifiers for devices (computer, printer, scanner, etc) on a network. The users Internet Service Provider (ISP) provide this number. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for managing IP Address space allocation globally. It does this with the help of five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs), responsible for allocating IP address blocks to their assigned regions ISPs, who in turn allocates them to their users.

	Any device that goes online and communicates using IP needs an IP address. Over the years there has been a growing number of users going online and a number of devices owned by the users to go online. One of the more common examples of this is the increase of Internet ready mobile phones. Our current addressing system used by our current Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) contains only 32bits which means it is only able to uniquely address ~~232 addresses (~~4,294,967,296) which is less ~~that~~ the number of people on this planet today. The very last batch of IP addresses ~~was~~ assigned out to the five RIRs early February 2011<ref>http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/river-of-ipv4-addresses-officially-runs-dry.ars</ref>. This was foreseen since the 90s, ~~which~~ sprung the development of a new Internet Protocol version, IPv6, which uses a 128bit addressing system ~~began~~.		Any device that goes online and communicates using IP needs an IP address. Over the years there has been a growing number of users going online and a number of devices owned by the users to go online. One of the more common examples of this is the increase of Internet ready mobile phones. Our current addressing system used by our current Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) contains only 32bits which means it is only able to uniquely address 4,294,967,296 addresses which is less than the number of people on this planet today. The very last batch of IP addresses were assigned out to the five RIRs early February 2011<ref>http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2011/02/river-of-ipv4-addresses-officially-runs-dry.ars</ref>. This address depletion was foreseen since the 90s, and sprung the development of a new Internet Protocol version, IPv6, which uses a 128bit addressing system.

	IP addresses can either be static or dynamic. ~~Static~~ IP address is an address permanently assigned to a user due to configuration. A dynamic IP address is one in which a new address is assigned at every boot up. A Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server is usually responsible for assigning dynamic IP addresses to users. There are two main advantages for dynamic addressing; it eliminates the administrative cost involved with assigning static IP addresses, and it helps solve the issue of limited addressing space by allowing many devices “share” a single address if they go online at different times. Given the limited addressing space the ISPs have to work with, and to save administration costs, most ISPs assign dynamic IP addresses as standard a offer static IP address ~~for~~ a higher fee.		IP addresses can either be static or dynamic. A static IP address is an address permanently assigned to a user due to specific configuration. A dynamic IP address is one in which a new address is assigned at every boot up. A Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server is usually responsible for assigning dynamic IP addresses to users. There are two main advantages for dynamic addressing; it eliminates the administrative cost involved with assigning static IP addresses, and it helps solve the issue of limited addressing space by allowing many devices “share” a single address if they go online at different times. Given the limited addressing space the ISPs have to work with, and to save administration costs, most ISPs assign dynamic IP addresses as standard a offer static IP address at a higher fee.

	===IP Addresses as an Attribution System===		===IP Addresses as an Attribution System===
	Although ~~Internet~~ addresses can be used to attribute packets to its sender, it will fail as an effective attribution system for a few reasons, but mainly that attackers can spoof their IP addresses. Spoofing IP addresses will even foil the efforts of IP trace backs.		Although IP addresses can be used to attribute packets to its sender, it will fail as an effective attribution system for a few reasons, but mainly that attackers can spoof their IP addresses. Spoofing IP addresses will even foil the efforts of IP trace backs.

	==Authentication Systems==		==Authentication Systems==
	In order for a website to make sure of the identity of who ever is visiting some pages, it provides an authentication system. This is usually a login name and password either assigned by the web server or chosen by the user. The biggest advantage ~~this has~~ is that ~~now,~~ attribution ~~can be performed~~ across different computers. The task of storing and securing login information is left to the web server, which is subject to attackers hacking into the server to stealing login information.		In order for a website to make sure of the identity of who ever is visiting some pages, it provides an authentication system. This is usually a login name and password either assigned by the web server or chosen by the user. The biggest advantage to authentication systems is that it can provide attribution across different computers. The task of storing and securing login information is left to the web server, which is subject to attackers hacking into the server to stealing login information.

	Login systems are attached to user accounts ~~that~~ sometime require private information in order to be setup. If the web server’s security is not good enough, security breeches may in turn lead to identity theft.		Login systems are usually attached to user accounts, and sometime require private information in order to be setup. If the web server’s security is not good enough, security breeches may in turn lead to identity theft.

	The process behind authentication systems is simple; using a typical web banking authentication system for instance, the process may go as follows. A user requests for a web account or one is automatically assigned to the user. The user sets up a password for accessing the account. When the user now goes to the website he is requested to “identify himself”, the user enters in his personal login information, the web server verifies this information with what it has stored in its database and either grants or denies access to the users personal page.		The process behind authentication systems is simple; using a typical web banking authentication system for instance, the process may go as follows. A user requests for a web account or one is automatically assigned to the user. The user sets up a password for accessing the account. When the user now goes to the website he is requested to “identify himself”, the user enters in his personal login information, the web server verifies this information with what it has stored in its database and either grants or denies access to the users personal page.

	Authentication systems are only ever used when it involves the users wanting some privacy on the webserver, or when the user wishes to store some form of information on the web server.		Authentication systems are only ever used when it involves the users wanting some privacy on the webserver, or when the user wishes to store some form of private information on the web server. So in essence, it always has something to do with privacy.

	===Authentication Systems as an Attribution System===		===Authentication Systems as an Attribution System===
	Authentication systems are very precise in the identification of people over the Internet and as such used by many companies. However it will have a serious privacy drawback if it were to be used as a global identification system. It will mean that virtually every web server will need to hold enough information about you to be able to identify you as an attacker. This would mean that to even a user randomly ~~search~~ for a cooking recipe online would need to login somehow to access the web server. People generally like the anonymity of surfing the web and a system like this will completely destroy ~~this~~.		Authentication systems are very precise in the identification of people over the Internet across multiple devices, and as such used by many companies. However it will have a serious privacy drawback if it were to be used as a global identification system, or attribution system. It will mean that virtually every web server will need to hold enough information about you to be able to identify you as an attacker. This would mean that to even a user randomly searching for a cooking recipe online, would need to login somehow to access the web server. People generally like the anonymity of surfing the web and a system like this will completely destroy that.

	=The Attribution Dilemma=		=The Attribution Dilemma=